The Russian Empress Catherine II deliberately staged herself and her position in her own country as an enlightened, righteous and absolutist ruler in various artistic genres. The pictorial propaganda of her reign made use of mythological allusions, such as the depiction of the empress as the goddess Athena/Minerva – as a clever and strategic war leader, she brings peace and protects knowledge and wisdom.
Catherine herself was highly educated, she studied literature and science and wanted to change Russia entirely according to her ideas. She was enthusiastic about the ideals of the Enlightenment and wanted to modernize the country according to its principles. Central aspects of the Enlightenment (reason, humanity and tolerance) stood in stark contrast to the previous Russian state leadership. Catherine therefore sought far-reaching reforms: Above all, she wanted to eliminate the arbitrariness of Russian punishments and the administration of justice. She also aimed to educate citizens to become good, just and productive people and to provide better access to education.
However, Catherine not only left serfdom - a social system similar to slavery - untouched, but even made it more severe. This earned her much criticism from her own people, from literary figures, philosophers and rulers from abroad. Her enlightened policy was exposed as a mirage.
She found it particularly difficult to assert herself against the patriarchal structures of the Russian state apparatus and the Orthodox Church. Even in other European countries, the view of a woman at the top of the power structure was characterized by hostility and prejudice. It was difficult to comprehend that Catherine “behaved like a man, chose her friends and lovers freely and combined political calculation with physical pleasures. It was as if she demanded equal rights for women.“
Her male critics regarded Catherine's (female) vanity as her greatest weakness and tried to exploit it deliberately. Catherine was portrayed negatively, particularly in contemporary political caricatures in England and France: The male caricaturists regularly used misogynistic clichés, depicting her as a power-hungry, unruly and sexually promiscuous woman, among other things.
They also alluded to Catherine's dealings with men who, as her favorites, had the closest, including sexual, contact with the empress. She was accused of having “too” great a sexual appetite, which led to persistent misogynistic criticism and the creation of legends – even in her own country.
This so-called “slutshaming” was and still is common practice today to discredit and belittle strong and independent women. What exactly constitutes a “too” large sexual appetite differs greatly by gender, both then and now. It is usually women who are condemned for a “loose” approach to sex.
The misogynistic double standard is particularly evident because favoritism was the norm at court: the powerful men had always surrounded themselves with mistresses and remarrying was also completely normal. However, parallel sexual relationships were reserved for men in dynastic circles. For women, it was considered essential to produce a legitimate heir to the throne. The fact that Catherine had affairs with Peter III during her marriage led to problems and later disparagement of her character. The paternity of her first son is still a matter of debate today. He was ultimately recognized as the legitimate son of Peter III and later reigned over Russia as Emperor Paul I. Other fathers are also assumed for the empress' other children.
The conspiracy theories and denigration of her character due to her self-confident sexuality persist vehemently and continue to be reproduced. Probably the most outrageous rumor about Catherine's alleged intercourse with a horse was only recently brought up again in the HBO production “The Great” – but there it was correctly marked as completely invented.
Catherine the Great was both a human being and an absolutist ruler. Many of her actions were and are open to criticism. However, it is important to take a close look at the nature of the criticism: Purposefully spread rumors about her sex life are symptoms of misogyny: they serve to damage the reputation of a strong woman. Therefore, it is less about questioning whether the accused person really had “too many” sexual partners, but whether it would have been just as scandalous for a man. misogyny is the driving force behind these character attacks.
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